Utility: The Principle of Greatest Happiness
Summary
Utility is the core concept of Utilitarianism, a moral theory started by Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and developed by John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). The Principle of Utility states that an action is right if it creates the "greatest happiness for the greatest number". Bentham defined "utility" as that property in any object or action that produces benefit, advantage, pleasure, good, or happiness and prevents mischief, pain, evil, or unhappiness. It's essentially a math equation: Pleasure minus Pain equals Utility. If the result is positive, the action is good. Bentham proposed the Hedonic Calculus to measure this using seven factors (like intensity and duration). Utilitarianism is teleological (focused on end goals) and consequentialist (judged by outcomes), unlike Kantian ethics which is about duty.
Detailed Explanation
What Is the "Principle of Utility"?
Definition
The principle that approves or disapproves of every action based on its tendency to increase or decrease the happiness of the party whose interest is in question.
In Simple Terms
- Good Action: Increases happiness/pleasure, decreases pain.
- Bad Action: Increases pain/unhappiness, decreases pleasure.
- Goal: Maximize the total amount of "utility" (happiness) in the world.
Jeremy Bentham's Act Utilitarianism
Key Concept: Quantitative Hedonism
Bentham believed all pleasures are equal. The pleasure of playing a simple game (like push-pin) is just as good as the pleasure of poetry, as long as the amount of pleasure is the same. Quantity matters, not quality.
The Hedonic Calculus
To figure out the right thing to do, Bentham created a "calculator" with 7 criteria to measure pleasure:
1. Intensity
How strong is the pleasure?
2. Duration
How long will it last?
3. Certainty
How likely is it to happen?
4. Propinquity (Nearness)
How soon will it happen?
5. Fecundity
Will it lead to more pleasure?
6. Purity
Will it be mixed with pain? (Pure pleasure has no pain).
7. Extent
How many people will it affect?
Memory Aid: PRRICED
Purity, Remoteness (Propinquity), Richness (Fecundity), Intensity, Certainty, Extent, Duration
Act Utilitarianism
Bentham is associated with Act Utilitarianism. This means you apply the Hedonic Calculus to each specific action in each situation.
Example: Is it okay to lie?
An Act Utilitarian calculates: "In this specific case, lying will save feelings and cause no harm, so it creates more utility. Therefore, lying is right in this case."
John Stuart Mill's Rule Utilitarianism
Key Concept: Qualitative Hedonism
Mill disagreed that all pleasures are equal. He famously said, "It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied."
- Higher Pleasures: Intellectual, aesthetic, moral (reading, art, helping others). These are superior.
- Lower Pleasures: Physical, bodily sensations (eating, drinking, sex). These are inferior.
Rule Utilitarianism
Calculating every single action is impractical and can justify terrible things (like the "sadistic guards" example—torturing one person for the pleasure of many). Mill proposed following rules that generally lead to the greatest good.
Example: Is it okay to lie?
A Rule Utilitarian asks: "What if everyone followed the rule 'it is okay to lie'?" Result: Trust would break down, causing massive unhappiness. Therefore, follow the rule "Do not lie," even if lying in this one case might seem beneficial.
Scholarly Perspectives
Jeremy Bentham
"Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do."
This is the opening sentence of Bentham's book. It establishes psychological hedonism (we are naturally motivated by pleasure/pain) and ethical hedonism (we ought to act based on them). It creates the foundation for the entire theory.
John Stuart Mill
"The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals, Utility, or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness."
This is the standard definition of Utilitarianism used in philosophy. It clearly links "utility" directly to "happiness," defining the moral worth of an action strictly by its outcome (consequence) relative to happiness.
Key Takeaways
Teleological and Consequentialist
It's about the goal or end (telos) of an action, not the action itself. Judged purely by outcomes.
Relativistic
There are no absolute "sins." Lying isn't always wrong; it depends on the utility it produces (especially for Bentham).
Democratic Equality
"Everybody to count for one, nobody for more than one." The happiness of a king counts the same as the happiness of a peasant.
Hedonic Calculus (PRRICED)
Purity, Remoteness (Propinquity), Richness (Fecundity), Intensity, Certainty, Extent, Duration—Bentham's 7 factors for measuring pleasure.
Bentham vs. Mill
Bentham: Quantitative hedonism (all pleasures equal), Act Utilitarianism (judge each action). Mill: Qualitative hedonism (higher vs. lower pleasures), Rule Utilitarianism (follow rules that maximize utility).
Quick Reference: Bentham vs. Mill
| Feature | Jeremy Bentham (Act) | John Stuart Mill (Rule) |
|---|---|---|
| Focus | Individual Acts | General Rules |
| Pleasure Type | Quantitative (All pleasure is equal) | Qualitative (Higher vs. Lower) |
| Method | Hedonic Calculus (7 criteria) | Greatest Happiness Principle / Harm Principle |
| Key Strength | Flexible, treats everyone equally | Protects rights, avoids "tyranny of majority" |
| Key Weakness | Can justify "sadistic" acts (e.g., torture) | Can be inflexible ("rule worship") |